The fault is that. Wine and health

Full-flowing spring is predicted to soon give way to an equally unstable summer in terms of rainfall, and representatives of the public and state authorities at various levels have already begun the process of finding out who is to blame for the current emergency and what to do with the affected residents who have lost their homes, property, livestock, and some - family members and the last hope for help ...

Version 1. Weather forecasters are to blame

At the height of the floods on the territory of the republic, the country's officials blamed weather forecasters for the current emergency. On April 17, 2017, at a press conference in Astana dedicated to the flood situation, Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs of Kazakhstan Yuri Ilyin said.

Screenshot of the site regnum.ru

A month later, the leaders of the Republican State Enterprise "Kazgidromet" responded. On May 18, during the expert discussion “Floods in Kazakhstan: Problems and Solutions”, Serik Sairov, Deputy General Director of RSE “Kazhydromet”, said: back in early March, weather forecasters warned that the volume of snow reserves in a number of reservoirs exceeded the capacity of these reservoirs by 2-3 times , and 16 storm warnings were issued during the flood period.

Screenshot of zonakz.net website

During this event, Deputy General Director for Science of the Agency for Applied Ecology, Malik Burlibaev, spoke out in defense of weather forecasters, saying that it is difficult to predict floods when there are a small number of gauging stations:

Look at what is happening: at one time there were 506 gauging stations on the rivers of Kazakhstan, now there are 307, while, according to the recommendations of the international meteorological organization, we need to have at least 800 of them. And Kazhydromet is not the old Hottabych to make forecasts in such conditions.

Version 2. The victims are to blame

Discussing the possible causes of floods, the experts also said that the victims themselves are to blame for the disaster. Because they built their houses in the wrong place.

We have a big problem, the main problem with floods is simply because people lined up in a low floodplain. Both in the low and in the high floodplain. I specifically looked at Kosmosnimkakh, Atbasar, Aktobe, Petropavlovsk, everywhere they drown where everything is in the floodplain, and the floodplain is flooded. That is, people actually committed suicide. They built where it gets flooded, and then they complain that they get flooded. Here is the main problem.

- said the geographer, member of the Public Council of the city of Almaty Marat Shibutov.

Video from the website of the Analytical Group “Cyprus”:

He was supported by Deputy Director General for Science of the Agency for Applied Ecology Malik Burlibaev:

These people, who are flooded in floodplain areas, were not driven there by force. They voluntarily by hook or by crook took the land allotment and climbed into the floodplain themselves. And let them get out of there!

Video from the site

What is wine? For some, this, in the dry language of explanatory dictionaries, is "an alcoholic beverage obtained by complete or interrupted alcoholic fermentation of grape or fruit juice (must) with subsequent processing of the resulting wine materials." And for some, wine is a huge world full of delights and surprises, pleasure and beauty, legends and discoveries... To some, wine seems like sour water, and someone not only understands the intricacies of taste, but also knows exactly what a dish, a type of cheese or a type of meat is served with one or another wine.

Of course, one article will not make you a connoisseur of wines, but such a goal is not set. Let's try to figure out how wine affects our body, and decide how useful (or harmful) it is.

Wine begins with the vine. More precisely, from the place where this vine grows. In french the language has the word "terroir" - the totality of the geological composition of the soil, illumination, microclimate and surrounding vegetation. Each of these factors affects the taste and aroma of wine. In addition to natural factors, the quality of the initial product is also influenced by the choice of grape variety and winemaking technology.

The most interesting thing is that the vine brings the best harvest in terms of quality only when it grows, it would seem, in completely unsuitable conditions for this. The vine is simply doomed to suffer from lack of moisture, nutrient deficiencies and crazy temperature changes. Watering the vine is even prohibited, with rare exceptions, and all in order for the juice to become as concentrated as possible. Soils for vineyards are so poor that the roots of the vines go down to a depth of 50 meters! This also has its own meaning - each geological rock with which the roots of the vine come into contact gives wine special flavor. In addition, the speed of ripening of grapes is important, therefore, in the northern vineyards, mainly white grapes are grown, as they ripen faster, and in the south - red, which ripen relatively late.

Wines vary considerably in taste, aroma and alcohol content. In addition to the difference in color - red, white and rose - there are 4 main types of wines:

Still - non-sparkling wines, called table wines, containing less than 14% alcohol. These are Bordeaux and Rhine wines.

Sparkling - the name speaks for itself. For example, this is champagne. Content alcohol is also less than 14%.

Fortified - containing 16-21% alcohol. These include port wine and sherry.

Flavored - containing 15.5-20% alcohol, such as, for example, vermouth.

The composition of wine is not just 60-85% water and wine alcohol. Wine consists of more than 600(!) organic and inorganic components.

Water largely determines chemical composition wine, as it is with it that mineral substances from the soil pass into the wine. It dissolves all the biologically active substances inherent in grapes and formed in the process of making wine.

Ethyl alcohol is contained in wine in small quantities - from 9 to 21%. Alcohol dissolves substances that are insoluble in water and, mixing with water, forms a complex physico-chemical system. Wine also contains methyl alcohol, however, in microscopic doses, as well as a number of higher alcohols and a polyhydric alcohol - glycerin.

An important group of wine components are sugars, mainly glucose and fructose, as well as polysaccharides. The composition of wine also includes various acids: tartaric, malic, lactic, succinic and a number of volatile acids.

There are nitrogenous substances in the composition of wine: amino acids and peptides, proteins and ammonia, as well as phenolic substances, represented mainly by anthocyanins and catechins. And the aroma and bouquet of wine is largely determined by its constituent aldehydes, acetates and esters.

And, of course, vitamins! Wine contains a lot of vitamin P, which is extremely important for the absorption of ascorbic acid. It is also found in wine - it is vitamin C. There are not so many vitamins of groups B and PP in wine, but their effect on the body is very favorable.

But wine is not just a collection of chemical elements. Wine is a mystery, magic… No wonder it has been enthusiastically glorified since ancient times. Thousands of years before our era, wine was considered a sacred drink, and Aristotle called wine “the milk of Venus.” Louis Pasteur believed that "wine is the healthiest, most hygienic drink, provided it is consumed in moderation." And the Russian doctor, professor N.F. Golubev, wrote: “It can hardly be doubted that wine, given to the patient on time and in the proper amount, is a healing factor of high importance.”

O useful properties Wines have been known since ancient times. The Greeks added some white wine to drinking water for its disinfection. Science has confirmed the disinfecting properties of wine - studies have shown that in less than an hour practically no pathogens remain in the water. And who knows what would have happened to Europe during the bubonic plague, if not for wine. When an epidemic of disinteria broke out in the Crimea in the 20s of the last century, in the face of a shortage of medicines, the spread of the infection was restrained by the regular intake of natural wine diluted by two-thirds.
White and red wine are equally toxic to salmonella and colibacilli. Diluted white wine, mixed with gastric juice, has a strong antibacterial effect. Moreover, the mechanism of the antimicrobial action of wine has not been fully studied: it is impossible to explain it only by the presence of alcohol - the concentration is too low. Scientists are inclined to believe that some decomposition products of the coloring and tannins of wine are “guilty” of this.

Red table wine, consumed constantly in small quantities, is a prophylactic in epidemics of gastric diseases, indigestion, hypertension, obesity and as a tonic. There are practically no such diseases in the Caucasus, as well as in France, Spain and Italy. Despite the rather heavy cuisine, which traditionally contains foods high in cholesterol, the population hardly suffers from cardiovascular diseases. This is explained by the property of wine to remove excess cholesterol from the blood. The wine literally flushes the vessels! By the way, those who believe that wine increases blood pressure, are wrong - this can only happen if you drink more than 3 glasses in a row.

French doctors believe that drinking at least one glass a day gives the body all the necessary elements. In France, even a special Eilo table has been compiled with recommendations on the use of wines for various diseases.

For anemia: 2 glasses of red table wine per day.

With beriberi: any natural wine.

With atherosclerosis: dry white wines with mineral water.

For influenza, bronchitis, pneumonia: hot red wine with sugar or honey.

With exhaustion, loss of strength: port, Madeira, sherry, a few spoons a day.

To maintain the heart muscle: light white wines, especially champagne.

For indigestion: red dry wines such as Cabernet.

For vomiting: strongly chilled dry champagne.

For tuberculosis: red wine in small doses.

Doctors and nutritionists recommend drinking wine every day, but not as usual, but diluted with water: ½ l. natural (this is important!) wine should be diluted with pure water in a ratio of 1:2 and drink it during the day instead of water, tea and coffee. This method is good for the prevention and treatment of atherosclerosis. It is probably not for nothing that in Burgundy wine is called "milk for the elderly."

Wine can bring us not only pleasure, but also benefit. The main thing is not to overdo it.

Larisa Shuftaykina

This term has other meanings, see Wine (meanings).

Guilt- this is the most important component of the subjective side of the composition of a misdemeanor or tort, the internal attitude of a person to the action (inaction) being performed and the consequences caused as a result.

Guilt in criminal law

Main article: Guilt (criminal law)

Guilt in criminal law it is an element of the subjective side of the corpus delicti, a prerequisite for criminal liability. According to the currently dominant psychological theory of guilt, it is defined as the mental attitude of a person to a socially dangerous act committed by him, provided for by criminal law, and its consequences. There are other theories of guilt.

Forms of guilt

There are two types of criminal law guilt- intent and negligence. Within the framework of intent, direct and indirect intent are distinguished, within the framework of negligence - criminal frivolity and criminal negligence. There are also crimes with a double (mixed) form of guilt.

The intentional form of guilt presupposes the guilty person's awareness of the essence of the act being committed, the foreseeing of its consequences and the presence of the will directed towards its commission.

Negligence is characterized by a frivolous calculation to prevent the harmful consequences of an act of a person, or the lack of foreseeing the occurrence of such consequences. Negligence is less common than intent, however, in terms of their consequences, careless crimes (especially those related to the use of certain types of equipment, atomic energy, etc.) can be no less dangerous than intentional ones.

The criminal law may also provide for a situation where, as a result of an intentional crime, grave consequences are inflicted that were not covered by the intent of the person. Criminal liability for such an offense occurs only if, in relation to these consequences, there was fault in the form of frivolity or negligence. Such a crime is called a double fault crime and is generally considered to have been committed intentionally.

The criminal law of most countries does not allow objective imputation, that is, responsibility for an act committed innocently. An act is considered to be committed innocently if the person did not foresee the socially dangerous consequences of his act and, due to the circumstances of the case, could not and should not have foreseen them.

Guilt in administrative law

In administrative law guilt- this is an element of the subjective side of the composition of an administrative offense, it is defined as the mental attitude of the subject to the unlawful action or inaction and its consequences.

Forms of guilt

In administrative law, two forms of guilt are distinguished - intent and negligence.

deliberately if the person who committed it was aware of the unlawful nature of his action (inaction), foresaw its harmful consequences and desired the onset of such consequences or knowingly allowed them or treated them indifferently.

An administrative offense is recognized as committed by negligence if a person foresaw the possibility of harmful consequences of his action (inaction), but without sufficient grounds, presumptuously counted on preventing such consequences or did not foresee the possibility of such consequences, although he should have and could have foreseen them. Administrative law, like criminal law, distinguishes between two forms of careless guilt - frivolity and negligence.

The distinction between intentional guilt and negligent guilt when committing an administrative offense is of great practical importance: in some cases, the Code of Administrative Offenses classifies only intentional actions (inaction) as misconduct, establishing signs of negligent guilt excludes proceedings on an administrative offense.

The guilt of a legal entity (as a subject of an administrative offense that does not have the ability to mentally relate to the committed illegal act) is expressed in its ability to comply with the rules and norms for the violation of which administrative responsibility is provided, and the failure to take all measures depending on them to comply with them.

Guilt in civil law

Guilt in civil law is a subjective condition of civil liability and is defined as the mental attitude of the subject to his unlawful behavior, which shows the degree of his neglect of the interests of the counterparty or society.

The concept of guilt is applicable to both citizens and legal entities. The guilt of legal entities is manifested through the guilty behavior of their employees and comes from the ability of a legal entity represented by its body (manager) to foresee the illegal actions of its employees and prevent or suppress them by their actions.

Forms of guilt

In civil law, two forms of guilt are distinguished - intent and negligence (simple and gross).

intent occurs when the behavior of a person is deliberately directed to the violation of an obligation.

With guilt in shape imprudence there are no elements of intentionality in the behavior of a person: it is not aimed at consciously committing a violation of an obligation, but it lacks the care and discretion necessary for the proper performance of an obligation.

The absence of guilt is proved by the person who violated the obligation. Thus, the offender must prove:

• what measures he took for the proper fulfillment of the obligation;
• what degree of care and diligence he showed.

What is guilt? Guilt in psychology. Guilt

If the feeling of happiness may not be familiar to everyone, then everyone knows what guilt is. The feeling of guilt is consciously cultivated in us from childhood by our parents and teachers. We grow up with an already established pattern: “if you know what the fault is, correct the mistake.” Whether this is right, it is useful to feel guilty or not, we will learn from this article.

The definition of "guilt" in psychology

Let's get back to science. Psychologists associate guilt with a whole range of emotional states, intertwined primarily with a sense of "remorse." To be more precise, guilt in psychology means a person experiencing a feeling of dissatisfaction with himself or his actions, as well as some resonance between the behavior of the individual and the values ​​​​accepted in society. Some psychological schools believe that guilt can only be experienced by members of a highly developed society, while this feeling is unknown to backward and intellectually undeveloped individuals.

Who can feel guilty?

Curiously, the feeling of guilt is manifested in non-verbal communication even in animals. Remember what a naughty dog ​​looks like? The eyes are slanted, the ears are lowered to the head. If the cat stole the sausage, then after the deed he will try to leave, as he understands that his act is in resonance with the moral and social values ​​​​of the family where he lives. Therefore, the feeling of guilt is something that is familiar even to animals, not to mention highly developed and civilized people.

What is the feeling of guilt?

According to the research of the doctor of psychology D. Unger, who studied what guilt is, this feeling of a person is made up of such components as remorse and recognition of one's wrong.

Repentance is manifested in the accusations of the offender, presented to himself. "Why did I do this?" - the one who feels guilty asks himself a question. The second component is the admission of being wrong. This factor is expressed in experiences, shame, fear and sadness.

Why is guilt necessary?

Why should a person experience a feeling that influences so destructively? There is an interesting version, proposed by Dr. Weiss, that this experience is simply necessary for establishing relationships between people. According to his theory, guilt is an adaptive quality, formed in the process of long relationships in society.

Guilt is an ambiguous concept. Therefore, there are many interpretations of this experience. The world-famous Dr. Freud and his colleague, working in the same field of psychology, but a little later - Dr. Mandler, assumed that guilt and anxiety are the same feelings, called by different words. If a person has made a mistake or was close to it, he has anxiety about the expected punishment. To get rid of anxiety, a person may try to make amends for his mistake. Also, some researchers associate guilt with fear. Fear of punishment is what makes a person repent of a wrongdoing.

How natural is it for a person to experience guilt? Apparently, even if animals and babies can feel remorse, therefore guilt is not an invented concept. But don't people confuse a sense of personal responsibility with a sense of guilt?

What is guilt in terms of real life?

Let's go back to the childhood of each of us. No matter who raised the child, these people benefited from our obedience. As soon as the baby does something that is not pleasing to an adult, he begins to get angry and express his displeasure. Educators in the face of parents and teachers can be understood. They believe that if you develop a sense of guilt in the mind of the baby, the child will grow up as a responsible, serious and honest person. However, this is a big mistake.

What is wrong with the artificial cultivation of guilt?

In fact, in every person there is what is called the "inner voice" or "voice of conscience." When a person, be he a respectable citizen or a notorious swindler, does something wrong, he hears this voice. However, what is wrong? Theft, betrayal, treason, fraud, deception - these are dishonorable things. But is it worth it to blame yourself if you want to take care of your elderly parents and do not inform them that you were fired? Is it worth it to feel guilty if you no longer want to communicate with a person, and tell him about it? We are told that to be happy you have to follow the expectations of others, and if not, then you are to blame.

Parents are the first to get it. The kid must respond to all their requests and instructions, in case of refusal, punishment occurs. Then, kindergarten teachers and teachers at school impose certain behaviors at school. You must study perfectly, be quiet, do not raise your voice and do not argue. Let's take a sober look at the situation. There are children who are born "excellent students", and there are active kids who will make great athletes or dancers, so they do not have a penchant for science. They get triples, comments, and along with this, parents and teachers develop a sense of guilt in them. Further more. The teenager becomes a young man, boy or girl, bound by all these restrictions.

Replacing a sense of responsibility with a sense of guilt

The current and modern society largely consists of irresponsible people. This is not their fault, because it is the merit of educators. Instead of instilling a sense of responsibility in the baby, he is actively implanted with a sense of guilt. What is guilt? It is remorse for not living up to the expectations of others. What is personal responsibility? It is the feeling of understanding that you can't do wrong things to others.

A person who has not developed a sense of responsibility can do atrocities and do wrong deeds with absolutely no fear, if he knows that they will not be punished. If a person is fully responsible for everything that she does, then she is aware of all her actions not because of fear of punishment, but because of her inner feelings.

Based on the foregoing, the following conclusion can be drawn. Feelings of guilt are invented and imposed on each of us. If you are already an adult, try to move away from this feeling, replacing it with a sense of awareness. If you are a parent raising a child, don't make your child feel guilty for not living up to your expectations.

VINA is:

GUILT GUILT - the mental attitude of a person to his unlawful act (action or inaction) and its consequences. It means awareness (understanding) by a person of the inadmissibility (illegality) of his behavior and the results associated with it. Necessary condition of legal responsibility. In criminal law, V. is the mental attitude of a person to a crime committed by him, expressed in the form of intent or negligence. V.'s prerequisite is the person's sanity and the achievement of the age of criminal responsibility established by law. In civil law, V. is a condition of liability for a civil offense: non-fulfillment or improper fulfillment of a contractual or other obligation, the commission of an illegal transaction, causing property damage, etc. V. a person who has committed a civil offense is assumed; to be released from liability, the violator must prove the absence of his V. (Civil Code of the Russian Federation, Art. 401). In some cases, V. is not a prerequisite for liability (if the harm is caused by the entrepreneur or a source of increased danger). Form V., as a rule, does not affect the amount of civil liability. In international law, V. is understood as the established fact of the commission by the subject of an internationally wrongful act, entailing his international responsibility.

Big legal dictionary. - M.: Infra-M. A. Ya. Sukharev, V. E. Krutskikh, A. Ya. Sukharev. 2003.

Guilt is a legal concept:

Wine legal concept Wine (culpa, Schuld, culpabilité) - is a necessary condition for liability, both civil and criminal, for unlawful acts. It lies in the internal attitude of a capable subject to the act he performs. V. forms the so-called internal composition of the act, for which the subject, or the perpetrator, is liable. As an internal psychological element of an act, guilt is opposed to the action itself, which caused a certain change in the external world, which had certain consequences, - to an external, physical element. Ascertaining in any case the presence of guilt, we state, at the same time, that this act is not only the product of a person’s hands, but also a product of his inner world, his will, consciousness, etc. Judgment about a person by his actions is based on an assumption about a certain, internal attitude of him to the acts he performs.

According to the difference in the concept of responsibility, the concept of guilt also differs. The broadest concept of responsibility - moral - corresponds to the broadest concept of guilt - moral; narrower is the concept of legal guilt. The latter, in turn, may be a criminal or civil fault.

Since ethics determines a person’s duties not only to others, but also to himself, and normalizes not only a person’s actions, but also spiritual movements, any deviation from morality, even in the same motives, in the same thoughts, justifies the presence of moral guilt. V. legal always implies, on the contrary, some action that violates the right or legal norm. The motives, motives that caused the action do not determine the responsibility, but can only influence the determination of its size - and then if we are talking about criminal responsibility. Comparatively closer to moral guilt is V. criminal. The latter was often even confused in the doctrine with the former, just as the realm of the immoral itself was confused with the realm of the criminal. The representatives of this view were mainly the followers of the Hegelian school, which recognized the unconditional free will and saw both in the criminal and in the immoral act the denial of absolute freedom, which is realized in law and morality (Köstlin, Berner). In modern doctrine, the criminal is distinguished from the immoral, although it is impossible to precisely define the boundary between the one and the other (Tagantsev, "Lectures" I, pp. 32 et seq.). The elements of guilt in the criminal sense are, first of all, will and consciousness. Any act can only be imputed to guilt (imputatio juris, in contrast to actual imputation, i.e., ascertaining causality - imputatio facti), insofar as it is a product of the will of the actor. For representatives of the theory of free will, indeterminists, the will of the agent is the cause of the act, and at the same time the cause of the consequences of the act (Causa causae est causa causati). But for adherents of the theory of non-free will, determinists, especially for representatives of the theory of the laws of human actions, will is also the main element of guilt. There can be no responsibility for actions that the actor did not want, to which his will was not directed. One will, however, is not enough for the presence of guilt; the actions themselves may correspond to the will of the subject, but the result of the action may turn out to be completely inconsistent with it, not only because the subject did not want this result, but because he was not aware of it or did not know about the possibility of its occurrence. Particularly important is the moment of consciousness regarding those criminal acts, the composition of which is carried out only by the onset of certain consequences (for example, murder). For the presence of consciousness, it is necessary to foresee the consequences or the idea of ​​them. Finally, the third necessary element of guilt in modern times(Binding) recognize the consciousness of the lawfulness of the act (Normwidrigkeit). In the doctrine of criminal law, the concept of guilt and the meaning of the elements included in it are extremely controversial and have been the subject of controversies to this day; in resolving issues related to guilt, an enormous role is played by the teachings about the conscious and unconscious will (Hartmann, Binding), about the psychological aspects of "representation" and "consciousness", etc. (see Sanity, as well as Intention, Negligence). In the system of criminal law, the doctrine of guilt is not particularly singled out by any of the criminologists from the doctrine of imputation and the types of guilt - intent and negligence.

In the history of criminal law, V. has not always served as a necessary condition for responsibility. In the era of the dominance of private revenge, when the punitive activity of the state was limited to regulating the manifestation of revenge on the part of the victim, the internal moment of guilt did not matter: the offended took revenge for the harm done to him by the act of the guilty, regardless of whether the perpetrator wanted or did not want to inflict this harm. The same indifferent attitude to the inner moment of the act also prevails in the next stage - with the development of a system of compositions (compositio), a certain reward in favor of the victim, or the so-called vira (or wergeld - see these words). Only gradually and, mainly, under the influence of canon law, does the moment of V. acquire more and more importance; at present, none of the criminal legislation loses sight of it. Legislative definitions of the concept of V. do not exist, but a number of decisions on intent, negligence, case, error, etc. sufficiently clarify the relationship of legislation to the internal corpus delicti. An exception regarding V. as a necessary condition for criminal liability is made only for police violations (contraven t ions, Uebertretungen), i.e., acts that do not involve violations of any right, but only non-compliance with regulations protecting security or fiscal interest. For liability for violations, they are usually content with the existence of one fact of violation, regardless of whether it occurred through the fault of the person held liable or under such circumstances that in other cases would completely exclude B. For example, the presence of goods unpaid by customs duty entails punitive consequences for its owner, even though in reality he was not guilty of the fact that the goods remained unpaid. See Violations.

Criminal V. has degrees. The evil will, or V., revealed in a criminal act, can be more or less intense, cause a different degree of responsibility, even if the act itself and its harmful consequences are identical. On this property of criminal V., its division into types is based, mainly on intent and negligence. The signs of these species are various degrees of both will and consciousness. Neither science nor positive law has yet developed precisely established principles for this distinction (see Will, Negligence, Intention). Along with the indicated types of guilt, distinguished in a qualitative sense, criminal law also knows other degrees of V. and in any case recognizes V. as capable of changing in quantitative terms. Therefore, it is possible to speak of greater or lesser V. The size of V. depends on the circumstances under which the given criminal act was committed and which, in essence, either could not but have a certain influence on the will or consciousness of the criminal, or in themselves reveal a greater or lesser degree of intensity. ill will. The circumstances influencing the determination of the size of V. can therefore be both facts preceding the commission of a crime, and facts simultaneous with it and following it, and not only external, physical facts, but also internal, mental ones (for example, extreme need, provocation , compensation for harm caused by a crime, features of the means and methods of committing a crime, premeditation, frivolity, passion, irritation, etc.). For the classification of these circumstances and their signs in doctrine and positive law, see Circumstances that increase and decrease B.

V. is completely absent among insane subjects (see Sanity and Insanity), as well as when there is a case, that is, when either the act itself is not the result of the determination and will of the subject, but an accidental, external phenomena of nature caused by its action or when it followed from the result of an act is an accidental deviation from the ordinary, which can be foreseen by the course of things (see Case). Perhaps, finally, the absence of V., due to circumstances excluding the criminality of the act (necessary defense, the consent of the victim to harm him, etc.), or circumstances excluding V. (for example, coercion - physical, vis absoluta, and mental, vis compulsiva, a state of emergency, etc.). Circumstances of the first kind are called excuses légales by French jurists, circumstances of the second kind are called faits justificatifs. The concept of civil war differs from the concept of criminal war. Civil liability is wider than criminal; the first, therefore, can be caused by such internal phenomena that are insufficient for criminal responsibility. The distinction between civil and criminal offenses or untruths was often based on the difference between civil and criminal violence (Bekker, Fichte, Trendelenburg, and partly the Hegelians Berner, Kö stlin, Hälschner; with m. about this, mainly Merkel, "Kriminalistische Ahhandlungen", I, Leipz., 1867; Binding, "Die Normen und ihre Uebertretung", I, 2nd ed., Leipz., 1890; Tagantsev, "Lectures on Russian Criminal Law", I, pp. 51-64). For the presence of civil warfare, it is usually not necessary to have a consciousness of the illegality of what is being done, it does not require both foresight and consciousness of the consequences of an act, but rather the consciousness of what is being done and the will to do exactly what is done (see Culpa).

Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron. - St. Petersburg: Brockhaus-Efron. 1890-1907.

There is so much information about wine on the Internet that it is easy to get lost in it. In practice, choose perfect drink, which would please your taste buds and harmoniously complement your menu for the evening, without the help of a professional sommelier is not so easy.

The wrong choice can be influenced by common misconceptions about the quality of wine, disseminated by the media and lovers. It is quite difficult to distinguish them from falsehood.

KitchenMag has compiled a list of 8 common misconceptions that shouldn't affect your choice of the perfect bottle of wine for a cozy dinner.

Good wine costs fabulous money

There is on the market a large number of variety of wines for every taste and budget. To think that only expensive drinks can boast of good quality is a delusion.

Each major producer has several lines of wines, among which there are budget options. This category includes, as a rule, light young wines in the price segment of about 500 rubles. Tip: buy budget wines from Chile and South Africa. French and Italian wines with such a price may not meet your expectations.

Single varietal wines are the best

Yes, single-varietal wines are good, but they are far from absolute and synonymous with ideal. There are wine-growing regions in which for cooking noble drink mixed several varieties of grapes. Blends help to achieve a harmonious taste, and are not synonymous with a second-rate drink. sweet taste one variety will help balance the sourness of another, and bright shades will complement the neutrality.

A screw cap indicates a fake

Natural wine cork is solid, authentic and noble. But many manufacturers today prefer conventional screw caps. Yes, they look not so expensive, but at the same time they have a number of advantages. Firstly, many wineries in a crisis can save money and produce wine at a lower price. Secondly, in natural cork, unlike screw cork, bacteria and microorganisms can form.

Semi-sweet wines are of high quality

Semi-sweet wines, of course, can be of high quality, because they are present in the line of reputable wine houses, but this is more of a rare exception than the rule. Often, sugar is used not to give the drink an interesting taste, but to hide flaws and errors in the production process.

If you want to always choose the perfect wine in terms of composition and taste for dinner, then we strongly advise you to fall in love with dry and semi-dry wines. For lovers of something lighter and sweeter, rose wine was invented.

The choice of wine depends on the food

It is widely believed that red wine is harmoniously combined exclusively with meat, and white - with fish. This is a myth that today has nothing to do with reality. The assortment of wine is so diverse that it would be foolish to limit yourself to some limits and not experiment with gastronomic combinations.

Focus on your impressions and sommelier advice. You can find red wine that perfectly complements seafood, or white wine that pairs harmoniously with poultry meat. It's a matter of taste.

Colorful labels are a sign of low quality

This is a completely baseless stereotype. The competition in the wine market is high, so producers are trying in every possible way to stand out from the competition. If many wineries remain conservative in terms of the drink itself and its properties, then the label is a good opportunity to misbehave and catch the attention of buyers. There are many examples of bright, colorful and cheerful labels that accompany worthy and expensive wines. As a rule, such labels are chosen for light and sparkling wines.

The precipitate gives only a colored drink

Many wine lovers are afraid of sediment and believe that this is an indicator that the drink is not of high quality. In fact, everything is not so. As the wine ages, a little sediment can actually appear. It is given natural dyes grapes and tannins. It is rather a guarantor of the quality of the wine, because the sediment in this case indicates its naturalness and indicates that filtration was not used in the process of making the drink.

The quality of wine has improved over the years.

This misconception applies to many alcoholic beverages. Everything is purely individual. Not all wines become tastier and nobler with age. Young wines, for example, only lose their enthusiasm and cheerfulness over time. It is better to drink them immediately, and not to store for a long time.

Much depends on the quality of the harvest and the taste characteristics of a particular wine. If you want to buy wine for long-term storage, then you should first study the table of vintages and consult with a specialist who will help you make the right choice.

Wine has long been an integral part of the lives of many people around the world. Since ancient times, mankind has known about the beneficial properties, as well as the harmfulness of this drink. So, for example, the mention of this drink was still among ancient writers, for example, in the Epic of Gilgamesh (a work of 1800 BC, one of the most ancient works on Earth) there is a mention of wine. “He felt bliss, and his heart was filled with joy” - this is how the hero’s feelings are described when he first drank wine. Even the Bible talks about this drink. The ancient Egyptians knew the secrets of winemaking and skillfully used them, this is evidenced by archaeological excavations, during which paintings were found with different scenes of winemaking - caring for vines, harvesting. In different parts of our world, grapes were grown and processed. There is historical evidence of this in Ancient Greece, Georgia, the Caucasus, Palestine, Iran, and the East. The history of winemaking goes back thousands of years.

Currently, the cultivation of grapes and winemaking is spread all over the world. Somewhere it is a big industry and a branch of the country's economy, and somewhere it is a passion and a hobby. France, Italy, Spain, Chile, USA, Argentina, Portugal, Germany, Hungary are unconditionally considered the leaders in the production of wine in the modern world.

Despite the fact that winemaking is developed differently in countries, there are a number of common knowledge, concepts and terms that give precise and identical definitions.
Wine- a product obtained during the fermentation (alcoholic fermentation) of grape or fruit juice, with or without pulp.

Now let's see what wines are.

Color classification

• Red
• White
• Pink

Composition classification

• Varietal - prepared from one variety of grapes
• Blended (blended wines) - prepared from different varieties.

Exposure classification

• The young are the wines of the current vintage. It is not aged in barrels, but immediately bottled. It has bright taste berry or fruit from which it is made. Homemade wines are often prepared using this technology.
• Unaged (ordinary) - prepared from not fully fermented wort. Almost all house wines are ordinary.
• Aged wines are prepared for at least 6 months before consumption.
• Vintage wines - only high-quality wines that are in barrels for at least 1.5 years, then bottled and aged for another (sometimes up to 4 years) have this status. Such wines are made only in certain wine-growing regions and from exceptional varieties. The names of such wines are strictly prohibited for use in other regions.
• Collection wines are the highest quality product, with a special production technology and aging for at least 3 years in special barrels, and then in additional “maturation” in bottles. These wines are the most expensive in the world. Over time, sediment may form at the bottom of the bottle, which is highly valued and understood by connoisseurs as the highest argument confirming prestige. There is also the concept of "vintage wine". This concept, first of all, means that it was made in a certain year, when weather and climatic conditions made it possible to obtain an amazing harvest, different from others.

Classification by sugar and alcohol content

• Dry wines - obtained by complete fermentation, is considered the most "correct" and healthy wine, because the taste is not artificially masked. You can taste the aroma most clearly by recognizing flavor notes. The alcohol content is from 8 to 11%, and the sugar content is 1.3%.
• Semi-dry wines - the fortress can be higher than in dry wines, and reach up to 13%. The method of preparation is similar to dry (natural fermentation), but fermentation is artificially suspended by heating or cooling. There is also more sugar in this wine - 0.5-3%, so this wine tastes sweeter. And the sweetness is of natural origin.
• Semi-sweet wines - the fortress reaches 14%, artificial sweeteners can be used. Predominantly sweet grape varieties are used.
• Fortified wines - this group includes red, white and rosé ports, madeira, sherry, marsala. As well as dessert wines (sweet and semi-sweet), Cahors and Muscat wines.
• Flavored - the most famous representatives - vermouth. Obtained by adding spices, infusion of flowers or herbs.
• Sparkling wines are dry, semi-dry, semi-sweet and sweet. Obtained by re-fermentation of dry grape wine, with the addition of sugar and saturating with carbon dioxide with the help of special yeast.

Now consider such a thing as the "body of wine" and tannins.

body of wine- a term from tasting terminology that describes the taste of wine, in particular viscosity, density, viscosity. The concentration of alcohol and sugar is what forms the wine body. The more their content, the more full-bodied the wine seems to be.

Tannins- These are natural chemical compounds that are odorless, have a bitter taste that astringes the tongue. In other words, these are natural polyphenols that are valued for being natural antioxidants. In grapes, a large number of them are contained in the skin. Tannins are found only in red wine and give it a specific taste that can be described as "dry mouth". The higher the content of this substance, the more astringent and astringent taste is felt. This is the so-called tannic taste. The tannins of the wine is also one of the evaluation criteria during tasting.

Above, we talked about the basic concepts that a winemaker or wine lover needs to know. These are the primary characteristics that will help you create an initial knowledge base about this drink, as well as help you when choosing a particular manufacturer.

Of course, the variety and assortment of wines is now huge, but in order to determine your taste preferences, you need to try. In the end, all the variety of tastes and preferences converges to one assessment - like it or not.

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