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Which gas smells like almonds. Properties and uses of bitter almonds

Cyanides, that is, hydrocyanic acid and its salts, are far from the most powerful poisons in nature. However, they are definitely the most famous and perhaps the most used in books and movies.

The history of cyanides can be traced confidently almost from the first written sources that have come down to us. The ancient Egyptians, for example, used peach pits to extract a deadly essence, which is simply called "peach" in the papyri on display at the Louvre.

Lethal Peach Synthesis

Peach, like two and a half hundred other plants, including almonds, cherries, sweet cherries, plums, belongs to the plum genus. The seeds of the fruits of these plants contain the substance amygdalin - a glycoside, which perfectly illustrates the concept of "lethal synthesis". This term is not entirely correct, it would be more correct to call the phenomenon “lethal metabolism”: in its course, a harmless (and sometimes even useful) compound is broken down into a potent poison under the action of enzymes and other substances. In the stomach, amygdalin undergoes hydrolysis, and one molecule of glucose is split off from its molecule - prunazine is formed (some of it is contained in the seeds of berries and fruits initially). Further, enzyme systems (prunasin-β-glucosidase) are included in the work, which “bite off” the last remaining glucose, after which the mandelonitrile compound remains from the original molecule. In fact, this is a meta compound that either sticks together into a single molecule, then again breaks down into components - benzaldehyde (a weak poison with a semi-lethal dose, that is, a dose that causes the death of half the members of the test group, DL 50 - 1.3 g / kg of rat body weight ) and hydrocyanic acid (DL 50 - 3.7 mg/kg rat body weight). It is these two substances in a pair that provide the characteristic smell of bitter almonds.

In the medical literature, there is not a single confirmed case of death after eating peach or apricot kernels, although cases of poisoning that required hospitalization have been described. And there is a fairly simple explanation for this: only raw bones are needed for the formation of poison, and you can’t eat a lot of them. Why raw? In order for amygdalin to turn into hydrocyanic acid, enzymes are needed, and under the influence of high temperature (sunlight, boiling, frying), they are denatured. So compotes, jams and "hot" bones are completely safe. Purely theoretically, poisoning with a tincture of fresh cherries or apricots is possible, since there are no denaturing factors in this case. But there, another mechanism for neutralizing the resulting hydrocyanic acid, described at the end of the article, comes into play.

Sky color, blue color

Why is acid called hydrocyanic? The cyano group in combination with iron gives a rich bright blue color. The best-known compound is Prussian blue, a mixture of hexacyanoferrates with the idealized formula Fe 7 (CN) 18 . It was from this dye that hydrogen cyanide was isolated in 1704. From it, pure hydrocyanic acid was obtained and its structure was determined in 1782 by the outstanding Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele. According to legend, four years later, on his wedding day, Scheele died at his desk. Among the reagents that surrounded him was HCN.

Military background

The effectiveness of cyanides for targeted elimination of the enemy has always attracted the military. But large-scale experiments became possible only at the beginning of the 20th century, when methods were developed for the production of cyanide in industrial quantities.

On July 1, 1916, the French used hydrogen cyanide against German troops for the first time in the battles near the Somme. However, the attack failed: HCN vapor is lighter than air and quickly evaporated at high temperatures, so the “chlorine” trick with an ominous cloud creeping along the ground could not be repeated. Attempts to weight hydrogen cyanide with arsenic trichloride, tin chloride and chloroform were unsuccessful, so the use of cyanides had to be forgotten. More precisely, to postpone - until the Second World War.

The German school of chemistry and the chemical industry at the beginning of the 20th century knew no equal. Outstanding scientists worked for the benefit of the country, including the 1918 Nobel laureate Fritz Haber. Under his leadership, a group of researchers from the newly created "German Society for Pest Control" ( Degesch) modified hydrocyanic acid, which had been used as a fumigant since the late 19th century. To reduce the volatility of the compound, German chemists used an adsorbent. Before use, the pellets had to be immersed in water to release the insecticide accumulated in them. The product was named "Cyclone". In 1922 Degesch passed into the sole ownership of the company Degussa. In 1926, a patent was registered for a group of developers for a second, very successful version of the insecticide - Zyklon B, which was distinguished by a more powerful sorbent, the presence of a stabilizer, and an irritant that caused eye irritation - to avoid accidental poisoning.

Meanwhile, Gaber has been actively promoting the idea of ​​chemical weapons since the First World War, and many of his developments were of purely military importance. “If soldiers die in a war, then what difference does it make - from what exactly,” he said. Haber's scientific and business career was steadily going uphill, and he naively believed that his services to Germany had long ago made him a full-fledged German. To the rising Nazis, however, he was primarily a Jew. Gaber began to look for work in other countries, but, despite all his scientific achievements, many scientists did not forgive him for the development of chemical weapons. Nevertheless, in 1933, Haber and his family went to France, then to Spain, then to Switzerland, where he died in January 1934, fortunately for himself without having time to see for what purposes the Nazis used Zyklon B.

operand modus

Vapors of hydrocyanic acid are not very effective as a poison when inhaled, but when ingested, its DL 50 salts are only 2.5 mg / kg of body weight (for potassium cyanide). Cyanides block the last stage of the transfer of protons and electrons by a chain of respiratory enzymes from oxidized substrates to oxygen, that is, they stop cellular respiration. This process is not fast - minutes even at ultra-high doses. But the cinematography, showing the rapid action of cyanides, does not lie: the first phase of poisoning - loss of consciousness - really comes after a few seconds. For a few more minutes, the agony lasts - convulsions, the rise and fall of blood pressure, and only then comes the cessation of breathing and cardiac activity.

At lower doses, several periods of poisoning can even be tracked. First, a bitter taste and burning sensation in the mouth, salivation, nausea, headache, rapid breathing, impaired coordination of movements, increasing weakness. Later, painful shortness of breath joins, there is not enough oxygen for the tissues, so the brain gives a command to speed up and deepen breathing (this is a very characteristic symptom). Gradually, breathing is oppressed, another characteristic symptom appears - a short inhalation and a very long exhalation. The pulse becomes more rare, the pressure drops, the pupils dilate, the skin and mucous membranes turn pink, and do not turn blue or turn pale, as in other cases of hypoxia. If the dose is non-lethal, everything is limited to this, after a few hours the symptoms disappear. Otherwise, it is the turn of loss of consciousness and convulsions, and then arrhythmia occurs, cardiac arrest is possible. Sometimes paralysis and prolonged (up to several days) coma develop.

Almonds and others

Amygdalin is found in plants of the Rosaceae family (plum genus - cherry, cherry plum, sakura, sweet cherry, peach, apricot, almond, bird cherry, plum), as well as in representatives of the cereal, legume, adox (genus elder) families, flax (flax genus), euphorbiaceae (genus cassava). The content of amygdalin in berries and fruits depends on many different factors. So, in the seeds of apples it can be from 1 to 4 mg / kg. In freshly squeezed apple juice - 0.01-0.04 mg / ml, and in packaged juice - 0.001-0.007 ml / ml. For comparison, apricot kernels contain 89–2170 mg/kg.

Poisoned - poison

Cyanides have a very high affinity for ferric iron, which is why they rush into cells to respiratory enzymes. So the idea of ​​a decoy for poison was in the air. It was first implemented in 1929 by Romanian researchers Mladoveanu and Georgiou, who first poisoned a dog with a lethal dose of cyanide and then saved it with intravenous sodium nitrite. It is now food supplement E250 is defamed by everyone who is not too lazy, but the animal, by the way, survived: sodium nitrite in conjunction with hemoglobin forms methemoglobin, on which cyanides in the blood “peck” better than on respiratory enzymes, for which you still need to get inside the cell.

Nitrites oxidize hemoglobin very quickly, so one of the most effective antidotes (antidotes) - amyl nitrite, isoamyl ester of nitrous acid - just inhale from a cotton wool, like ammonia. Later it turned out that methemoglobin not only binds cyanide ions circulating in the blood, but also unblocks the respiratory enzymes “closed” by them. The group of methemoglobin-forming agents, however, already slower, also includes the dye methylene blue (known as "blue").

There is also a reverse side of the coin: when administered intravenously, nitrites themselves become poisons. So it is possible to saturate the blood with methemoglobin only with strict control of its content, no more than 25–30% of the total mass of hemoglobin. There is one more nuance: the binding reaction is reversible, that is, after a while the formed complex will decompose and cyanide ions will rush into the cells to their traditional targets. So we need another line of defense, which is used, for example, cobalt compounds (cobalt salt of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, hydroxycobalamin - one of the B 12 vitamins), as well as the anticoagulant heparin, beta-hydroxyethylmethyleneamine, hydroquinone, sodium thiosulfate.

Incident of Rasputin

But the most interesting antidote is much simpler and more accessible. Chemists at the end of the 19th century noticed that cyanides are converted into non-toxic compounds when interacting with sugar (this happens especially effectively in solution). The mechanism of this phenomenon was explained in 1915 by the German scientists Rupp and Golze: cyanides, reacting with substances containing an aldehyde group, form cyanohydrins. There are such groups in glucose, and the amygdalin mentioned at the beginning of the article is essentially glucose-neutralized cyanide.

It doesn't heal, it hurts!

Amygdalin is popular with near-medical charlatans who call themselves representatives of alternative medicine. Since 1961, under the brand name "Laetrile" or under the name "Vitamin B 17", a semi-synthetic analogue of amygdalin has been actively promoted as a "cancer cure". There is no scientific basis for this. In 2005 in the magazine Annals of Pharmacotherapy a case of severe cyanide poisoning was described: a 68-year-old patient took Laetrile, as well as overdose of vitamin C, counting on an increased prophylactic effect. As it turned out, such a combination leads exactly in the opposite direction from health.

If Prince Yusupov or one of the conspirators who joined him - Purishkevich or Grand Duke Dmitry Pavlovich, knew about this, they would not start filling cakes (where sucrose has already been hydrolyzed to glucose) and wine (where glucose is also available), intended for treats of Grigory Rasputin, potassium cyanide. However, there is an opinion that he was not poisoned at all, and the story about the poison appeared to confuse the investigation. Poison was not found in the stomach of the "royal friend", but this means absolutely nothing - no one was looking for cyanohydrins there.

Glucose has its advantages: for example, it is able to restore hemoglobin. This turns out to be very useful for "picking up" detached cyanide ions when using nitrites and other "poisonous antidotes". There is even a ready-made drug, "chromosmon" - a 1% solution of methylene blue in a 25% glucose solution. But there are also annoying downsides. First, cyanohydrins are formed slowly, much more slowly than methemoglobin. Secondly, they are formed only in the blood and only before the poison penetrates the cells to the respiratory enzymes. In addition, eating potassium cyanide with a piece of sugar will not work: sucrose does not react directly with cyanides, it must first be decomposed into glucose with fructose. So if you are afraid of cyanide poisoning, it is better to carry an ampoule of amyl nitrite with you - crush it in a handkerchief and breathe for 10-15 seconds. And then you can call an ambulance and complain that you were poisoned with cyanide. The doctors will be surprised!

Almond is a small tree or shrub that belongs to the Rosaceae family. It grows in Central Asia, India, Indonesia, South Africa and Australia. When the almond blossoms, there is a stunning sweetish aroma around for miles, and the crowns of the trees are covered with many white or pinkish flowers. The fruits of almond trees are widely used in cooking, medicine and of course, thanks to their wonderful aroma, in perfumery.

There is a lot of controversy about the homeland of almond trees, it could be somewhere in Central Asia or China. But only one thing is known for sure - mankind has been using the fruits of almonds for more than 8000 years. Also in Ancient Egypt used almond flour for making bread. In many countries, this plant was considered sacred, miraculous properties were attributed to its fruits. Almond flowers were sacrificed to the gods, considered the progenitor of all things and a symbol of spring, it was used in magical rituals.

Since ancient times, almonds have been used in cosmetology and perfumery. It was almond oil that Cleopatra used, the Egyptians believed that it brings good spirits. It was used in aromatic incense burners for various rituals. In Roman times, almond oil was considered the best way strengthen the skin.

There are two types of almonds: sweet and bitter. Bitter almonds contain a large amount of the dangerous substance amygdolin, which, when split, releases hydrocyanic acid, which is a deadly poison. Therefore, bitter almonds are not consumed without proper processing. From this point of view, sweet almonds are much safer.

Almond oil is obtained by cold pressing, and then used in cooking, cosmetology or perfumery. It is included in the composition of perfumery compositions in the form of an essential oil freed from hydrocyanic acid. In modern perfumery, almond is most often found in the top and middle notes, it gives a slight bitterness along with sweetness. When creating aromas, almond flowers are also used. The beauty of this ingredient is that it can be quite diverse: from bitter non-gourmand to a pleasant, very edible smell. It can be found in different compositions and can be a great addition and flavor accord in perfumes.

Aromas with notes of almonds:

Brit by Burberry

Forever And Ever by Christian Dior

Escale A Portofino by Christian Dior

Tracy by Ellen Tracy

La Petite Robe Noire Guerlain

Angel Innocent by Thierry Mugler

Cinema by Yves Saint Laurent

The aroma of almonds, despite the sweetness, may indicate the presence of cyanide, or hydrocyanic acid salts, in the air. This substance is quite dangerous, it affects the nervous system and the human psyche.

To be poisoned by the fumes of hydrocyanic acid at home, you need to try hard. Much more likely to be poisoned by overuse products that contain it.

Potassium cyanide and its faint odor are often mentioned in fiction. This is inherent in Agatha Christie and her detective novels. During World War II, it was used as a chemical weapon.

Even plastic utensils may also contain cyanides. This happens in cases where production safety rules have been violated. And if you heat such dishes, then it begins to release the corresponding vapors, leading to poisoning.

It is always better to have glass and ceramic utensils in everyday life.

Symptoms of poisoning

First of all, potassium cyanide acts on nerve cells. Dangerous problems with the respiratory system appear, oxygen delivery to the tissues is disrupted.

Symptoms:

the heart rate accelerates significantly, excitement appears, followed by convulsions. And after that, the pulse slows down sharply, loss of consciousness, coma and death occur. With a high concentration of poison in the body, just a couple of minutes is enough for a person to go through all these stages.

An antidote saves from small concentrations. They are amyl nitrite, sodium sulfate, and chromosmone.

Very small doses, unable to seriously poison the body, are neutralized by ordinary sugar.

The most effective antidote is a series of substances with the general name methemoglobin formers. They interact with hemoglobin, binding it to cyanide, which ultimately leads to the formation of harmless cyanmethemoglobin.

But in no case should you use them on your own, since exceeding the dosage threatens to completely stop the transfer of oxygen in the blood.

There is a curious theory about how they tried to poison Rasputin with potassium cyanide, but the effect of the poison was neutralized by garlic. It is not worth checking it for yourself and others.

How to eat so as not to get poisoned

Almonds are left in the sun until completely dry. Under prolonged exposure to sunlight, the poison is neutralized, and the seeds and nuts become safe.

Theoretically, you can process them in a different way. For example, put in the oven, keeping it for a long time at a high temperature. Because of this, hydrocyanic acid molecules disintegrate, and the poison evaporates.

Wet, freshly unshelled nuts and grains are very dangerous. If it is bitter almonds, then it will be enough to eat 40 nuts, and severe poisoning will occur. Yes, and the taste of fresh almond grains is not very pleasant when compared with those that have undergone heat treatment.

From this we can conclude: compote on cherry pits is safer than tincture. Since in the second case a certain proportion of the content of hydrocyanic acid is preserved, and in the first case it is neutralized by boiling.

Infographic translated with the kind permission of Andy Brunning. For non-commercial use.

When I just started writing a toxicological series, they immediately began to ask me - will there be cyanides? Now I can answer with a clear conscience: yes. The most famous literary and cinematic poison, capsules with which any self-respecting hero must carry, even if he is an absent-minded professor from Berlin.

Lethal-synthetic "bobs"

Cyanides, that is, hydrocyanic acid and its salts, are not the most powerful poisons in nature, but definitely one of the most popular. Most likely, this is due to the relative ease of manufacture, the ability to kill guaranteed in any of the three states of aggregation and the speed of action, although, again, relative.

The history of cyanides can be traced confidently almost to the first written sources that have come down to us. The ancient Egyptians, for example, used peach pits to extract a deadly essence, which is simply called "peach" in the papyri exhibited in the Louvre, in the context of "under pain of punishment by a peach" or "under pain of death by a peach." It is clear that, if desired, you can also kill the whole fetus if you block their natural openings, but we are talking about a more reliable, chemical method.

And what about the peach? Everything is quite simple, if you remember that a peach is a plum, an almond is also a plum, moreover, a cherry is also a plum. And cherry. And bird cherry. The seeds of the fruits of many plants of the plum genus contain a very interesting substance amygdalin, a glycoside, which perfectly illustrates the concept of "lethal synthesis". In turn, the concept of "lethal fusion" is a perfect example of incorrect use of the term. It would be more correct to call the phenomenon “lethal metabolism”, because during its course a harmless, and sometimes even useful substance, under the action of enzymes and other organic and inorganic chemistry, is broken down to a real poison.

Lethal synthesis is usually illustrated in textbooks with methanol. As you know, this alcohol is often mistakenly taken orally instead of or together with ethanol. Business, as a rule, ends sadly, 50 ml methyl alcohol enough to be summoned to a hearing in the heavenly office. If life can be saved, most likely, the function of vision will be irreversibly disabled. Methanol itself is not so terrible, alcohol and alcohol, however, under the influence of alcohol dehydrogenase, it turns into formaldehyde, and this is a completely different level of toxicity.

In my opinion, the story with amygdalin is more beautiful, but for some reason it is not mentioned so often in textbooks. Let's clear up this misunderstanding.

So, this is what an amygdalin molecule looks like:

Hydrolysis of amygdalin in the stomach leads to the exclusion of one molecule of glucose from the original formula. We get prunazine:

By the way, prunazine itself is present in the bones. Next, enzymatic systems are included, to be precise - prunazine-β-glucosidase. She bites off the second glucose, after which the original molecule remains, excuse the expression, a solid mandelonitrile:

This same mandelonitrile is a very remarkable thing. In fact, this is such a metacompound, which either sticks together into a single molecule, then again breaks down into components. And these components, for a moment, are benzaldehyde (weaker poison, DL50 1300 mg / kg of rat body weight) and - ta-da! - hydrocyanic acid (and this is already DL50, equal to 3.7 mg / kg of rat body weight). It is these two substances that provide the characteristic smell of bitter almonds. But not all people feel it, about 40% of the population, owners of a certain allele of genes.

In fairness, I could not find a description of the case when a person ate peach or apricot pits to the state of a lifeless carcass, but poisoning with hospitalization has been described repeatedly. Although, if you think about it, nothing is impossible. I will not make calculations so as not to fall under distribution for promoting self- and mutual sawing methods, the necessary numbers are very easy to find by any search engine, but the number of bones for the last eating in life is not so industrial.

On the other hand, in the south of Russia, in the language of my grandmother, it is very common to “hot bobs”, when apricots are disassembled into two components, the pulp goes to apricots (a kind of dried fruit), and “bobs”, that is, bones, are also laid out on metal surfaces and "hot" in the sun. Then these "beans" are eaten in the manner of seeds, in fairly tangible quantities. Such heat treatment, firstly, denatures the enzymes necessary for "lethal synthesis", and secondly, it destroys a part of amygdalin with prunazine.

Speaking of amygdalin, one cannot help but recall that it is incredibly popular with fans of alternative medicine. Since 1961, under the brands Laetrile, Amygdalin, or under the name Vitamin B17, a semi-synthetic analogue of amygdalin has been actively promoted as a "cancer cure". There is no scientific basis for this. And the Cochrane Society is quite ready to test the effectiveness of the antitumor effect of amygdalin, but here's the problem: as of April 28, 2015, it was not possible to find a single study that could be included in the classic Cochrane meta-analysis. But in 2005, the Annals of Pharmacotherapy magazine described a case of severe cyanide poisoning: a 68-year-old patient took Laetrile, as well as overdose of vitamin C, counting on an increased preventive effect. As it turned out, such a combination leads exactly in the opposite direction from health.

Combat past

The effectiveness of cyanides for targeted elimination of the enemy has always attracted the military. But large-scale experiments became possible only at the beginning of the 20th century, when the chemical industry developed so much that cyanide could be produced, stored and even delivered to the side of the enemy. On July 1, 1916, French troops in the battles near the Somme River used hydrogen cyanide for the first time on German positions. However, the gas cylinder attack, to put it mildly, was unsuccessful. The fact is that the density of HCN vapor in the air is less than unity, so it was not possible to repeat the “chlorine” trick with an ominous cloud creeping along the ground. Plus, at high humidity, a rather rapid hydrolysis of the poisonous substance occurred.

Repeated attempts were made to weight hydrogen cyanide with arsenic trichloride, tin chloride and chloroform, but in vain. Combat concentration stubbornly did not gain. So the use of cyanide in open spaces had to be forgotten. But this class of substances still attracted maniacs who dreamed of the mass destruction of the enemy. During the Second World War, the German Nazis excelled in this sense. However, this story is worth dwelling on in more detail.


Exterminators in New Orleans, 1939 In containers - the same "Cyclone".

As early as the end of the 19th century, hydrocyanic acid was used as a fumigator. Insecticide properties were first demonstrated in California in the treatment of orange trees. In this case, the instability of the connection turned out to be a big plus, the American experience was liked, it spread to other countries, HCN began to process storage facilities, holds of steamships, and freight cars.

The German chemical school and the chemical industry that grew up on the results of its work at the beginning of the 20th century knew no equal. Outstanding scientists worked for the benefit of the country, including the Nobel laureate of 1918 (who actually received the prize in the non-war 1919) Fritz Haber. With his submission, the idea of ​​the Americans was taken for revision. In the newly founded "German Society for Pest Control" (Degesch), a group of researchers led by Haber modified the insecticide. They applied an adsorbent to reduce the volatility of the HCN. Before use, the pellets had to be immersed in water to release the hydrogen cyanide accumulated in them. The product was called "Cyclone A", although more often it was called simply "Cyclone".

In 1922, Degesch was taken over by the Degussa company. In 1926, a patent for the insecticide "Zyklon B" was registered for a group of developers. The letter "B" was added to distinguish it from the first version, and literally it meant Blausaure("blue acid", a tribute to color). The second had a more powerful sorbent, stabilizer, and a special marker - an irritant that caused eye irritation, added in order to avoid accidental poisoning. Later, the giant IG Farben also joined the management of Degesch, sales of Zyklon B grew, and it was especially popular in the USA.

Meanwhile, Haber quietly developed the military direction in the work of Degesch. His position was expressed by the following phrase: “In peacetime, a scientist belongs to the world, in wartime, to his country,” so he not only supported the idea of ​​chemical weapons, but also promoted it in every possible way. So, he was personally present at the first gas attack at Ypres, even received the rank of captain of the Kaiser's army, many of his achievements were of purely military importance. “If soldiers die in war, then what difference does it make - from what exactly,” Gaber said (both statements are quoted from this book). Scientific and business career confidently went uphill. The polar fur animal, as usual, crept up imperceptibly.

In the 1930s, Haber was increasingly reminded of his origins. He naively believed that his services to Germany had long since made him a full-fledged German, but for the rising Nazis, he was primarily a Jew. The stunned Gaber began to look for options for work in the West, but there he was hiccupped by a position on chemical weapons. So, Ernest Rutherford, when meeting with Haber in England, defiantly refused to shake his hand and did not help him in anything in the future.

In 1933, Haber and his family nevertheless left Germany, they moved to France, then to Spain, then to Switzerland, then he was offered a place in the Middle East, but Haber's health failed completely, and in January 1934 he died in Basel. The family moved to England, the children even became British subjects. By and large, it’s good that Gaber did not see for what purposes the Nazis used Zyklon B ...


Labels from Zyklon B packages found in the Dachau concentration camp. Physical evidence presented at the Nuremberg Trials.

The Americans were also interested in combat cyanides, however, they were truly French, of the 1916 model. But they did find something interesting as a by-product.


Gas formula CS.

So, in 1928, Ben Corson and Roger Stoughton obtained the cyanocarbon chlorobenzalmalondinitrile, better known - by the first letters of the names of the developers - as CS gas, the first representative of the so-called police gases. Despite the fact that CS is considered a non-lethal compound, there is evidence that at certain concentrations in enclosed or poorly ventilated areas it can be a very combat agent. It seems to be how it was tested by the Americans on the Vietnamese during the cleaning of partisan tunnels, however, the partisans responded in the same way, using CS against the southerners.

Hydrocyanic acid vapors were also used in the USA for the execution of criminals. The first experience in 1923 was not very successful - after the OV was allowed into the death row, two guards joined him, the room turned out to be not entirely airtight. The mistake was taken into account and later executions were carried out in a specially equipped box. A device is installed behind the chair of the sentenced, in which potassium cyanide or sodium is immersed in sulfuric acid. As a result, HCN is released, which leads to death. Slow and painful. In 1992, during the execution of Donald Harding in Arizona, the agony of the condemned lasted 11 minutes. The representatives of the prosecutor's office who were present at the same time were constantly sick, and the head of the prison threatened to resign if he had to carry out such an execution again. The last execution in the gas chamber dates back to March 3, 1999, this method of killing is being actively replaced by more humane ones, mainly by lethal injection.

operand modus


140 mg of potassium cyanide. Enough for a lightweight boxer or a figure-conscious woman.

Surely many readers have a question - why 11 minutes? In films, it is enough to bite through the ampoule - and that's it, instantly in the sea. The question, as usual, rests on the dose. For hydrocyanic acid vapors DL50 - 2 g * min / cubic meter, that is, a lot, if you count on a medium-sized room. And the toxic effect begins earlier. So until the dose is reached.

With cyanides per os take it easy. Potassium cyanide per average consumer requires approximately 2.5 mg/kg of body weight. In this sense, we lose to rats (10 mg/kg bw), mice (8.5 mg/kg bw) and even rabbits (5 mg/kg bw). Why we lose is understandable, in their plant diet they encounter cyanides much more often than us, so they have adapted. Those who survived, of course.

Cyanides block the last step in the transfer of protons and electrons by the chain of respiratory enzymes from oxidizable substrates to oxygen. In other words, cellular respiration stops. This process is slow, hence such a pronounced dose-dependence and the relative slowness of death.

Slowness is minutes even at ultra-high doses. But what about Pleishner and others? Calm down, in films they almost don’t lie about this, they just show only the first phase of poisoning - loss of consciousness, and it really takes a few seconds. But then the agony lasts for a few more minutes - convulsions, first a rise, and then a drop in blood pressure, and only then a cessation of breathing and cardiac activity.

At lower doses, several periods of poisoning can even be tracked. First - a bitter taste and a burning sensation in the mouth, salivation, nausea, headache, shortness of breath, impaired coordination of movements, increasing weakness. Later, painful shortness of breath joins, there is not enough oxygen for the tissues, so the brain gives a command to speed up and deepen breathing. A very characteristic symptom, by the way, usually frequent breathing is superficial, but here such a powerful pumping is direct a large number air. Gradually, breathing is oppressed, another characteristic symptom appears - a short inhalation and a very long exhalation. The pulse becomes more rare, the pressure drops, the pupils dilate, the skin and mucous membranes turn pink, and do not turn blue or turn pale, as in other cases of hypoxia. If the dose is non-lethal, everything is limited to this, after a few hours the status quo is restored.

If the picture continues to unfold, now it is the turn of loss of consciousness and convulsions. Arrhythmia occurs, cardiac arrest is possible. If the death did not interrupt the torment of the poisoned person, a paralytic period develops, when sensitivity is completely lost, reflexes disappear, muscles relax, including sphincters (that is, involuntary defecation and urination), extreme hypotension, coma. And in a coma, waiting for what will rise first - heart or breathing - the patient can spend up to several days.

Incident of Rasputin

Cyanides have a very high affinity for ferric iron, which is why they rush into cells to respiratory enzymes. So the idea of ​​a decoy for poison was in the air. It was first implemented in 1929 by Romanian researchers Mladoveanu and Georgiou, who first poisoned a dog with a lethal dose of cyanide and then saved it with intravenous sodium nitrite. It is now that the E250 food supplement is being defamed by everyone who is not too lazy, but the animal, by the way, survived: sodium nitrite in conjunction with hemoglobin forms methemoglobin, on which cyanides in the blood "peck" better than on respiratory enzymes, for which you still need to get inside cells.

Nitrites oxidize hemoglobin very quickly, so one of the most effective antidotes (antidotes) - amyl nitrite, isoamyl ester of nitrous acid - just inhale from a cotton wool, like ammonia. Later it turned out that methemoglobin not only binds cyanide ions circulating in the blood, but also unblocks the respiratory enzymes “closed” by it. The group of methemoglobin-forming agents, however, already slower, also includes the dye methylene blue (known as "blue").

There is also a reverse side of the coin: when administered intravenously, nitrites themselves are poisons. So it is possible to saturate the blood with methemoglobin only with strict control of its content, no more than 25-30% of the total mass of hemoglobin. There is one more nuance: the binding reaction is reversible, that is, after a while the formed complex will decompose, and cyanide ions will rush into the cells to their traditional targets. So we need another line of defense, which is used, for example, cobalt compounds (cobalt salt of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, hydroxycobalamin - one of the B12 vitamins), as well as the anticoagulant heparin, beta-hydroxyethylmethyleneamine, hydroquinone, sodium thiosulfate.

But the most interesting antidote is much simpler and more accessible. Chemists at the end of the 19th century noticed that cyanides are converted into non-toxic compounds when interacting with sugar (this happens especially effectively in solution). The mechanism of this phenomenon was explained in 1915 by the German scientists Rupp and Golze:

Cyanides, reacting with substances containing an aldehyde group, form cyanohydrins. There are such groups in glucose, and the amygdalin mentioned at the beginning of the article is, in fact, a glucose-neutralized cyanide.


Wax figures of Felix Yusupov and Grigory Rasputin at the scene of the murder. Exposition at the Yusupov Palace on the Moika.

If Prince Yusupov or one of the conspirators who joined him - Purishkevich or Grand Duke Dmitry Pavlovich, knew about this, they would not start filling cakes (where sucrose has already been hydrolyzed to glucose) and wine (where glucose is also available), intended for treats of Grigory Rasputin, potassium cyanide. However, there is an opinion that he was not poisoned at all, and the story about the poison appeared to confuse the investigation. Poison was not found in the stomach of the "royal friend", but this means absolutely nothing: no one was looking for cyanohydrins there.

Glucose has its advantages, for example, it is able to restore hemoglobin. This turns out to be very useful for "picking up" the detached cyanide ions when using nitrites and other "poisonous antidotes". There is even a ready-made drug, "chromosmon" - a 1% solution of methylene blue in a 25% glucose solution.

But there are also annoying downsides. First, cyanohydrins are formed slowly, much more slowly than methemoglobin. Secondly, cyanohydrins are formed only in the blood, and only before the poison penetrates the cells to the respiratory enzymes. In addition, eating potassium cyanide with a piece of sugar will not work: sucrose does not react directly with cyanides, it must first be decomposed into glucose with fructose.

So if you are afraid of cyanide poisoning, it is better to carry an ampoule of amyl nitrite with you - crush it in a handkerchief and breathe for 10-15 seconds. And then you can call an ambulance and complain that you were poisoned with cyanide. The doctors will be surprised!

Not everyone knows that in addition to sweet edible almonds, there are bitter almonds. It is the fruit of a tree belonging to the Rosaceae family. Squeezed bitter oil is used in medicine, including in the formulation medicines. It is often used in cosmetology in the manufacture of balms, masks, creams and in soap making to obtain high-quality soaps.

Description

Almonds are called one of the healthy nuts, but they are hard stone fruits. This is a small plant, reaching 10 m in the wild. It grows in areas with a subtropical climate in China, the USA, Asia Minor, Iran, and Afghanistan. serve as a wonderful decoration for any garden and plot, as a hedge in park areas and alleys. Almonds are grown in Spain, Israel, Turkey, France, Greece. The plant has many red-brown smooth thin branches and a powerful root system. The leaves are oblong, with a pointed top, grow in the next order or in bunches on a small petiole.

The tree blooms with pale pink or white bisexual flowers, giving a delicate pleasant aroma. Flowering takes place in the spring, often before the foliage blooms. The fruit is a drupe, oval, leathery, dryish, fluffy, appearance reminiscent of a green peach. After maturation, the pericarp cracks, freeing the bone. They call it a walnut. The almond tree bears fruit for 5 years. Lives for about 150 years. It tolerates frosts up to 25 C. This is a drought-resistant and unpretentious plant. Wild almonds grow in groups of 3-4 individuals. It is more common on gravel and rocky slopes and hills. Likes calcium rich soil.

Bitter and sweet almonds, when crossed, produce sweet fruits. Only one of the four resulting bushes can produce bitter nuts, since the gene that gives them bitterness is not dominant.

Difference from sweet almond

By palatability almond fruits are divided into sweet and bitter. Bitter almonds are valuable for a person, no less than sweet. It's hard to tell them apart by sight. But bitter fruits have a harder, stronger shell that can only be broken with a hammer. Sweet almonds are larger than bitter ones. The smell of a whole kernel is not felt. But if it is crushed or cut, a bitter, pronounced almond flavor will appear due to amygdalin glycoside. This substance is poisonous. When ingested, it forms cyanide.

The glycoside amygdalin is found in some seeds of fruit plants. If jam, compote or tincture on stone fruits is stored for a long time, poisonous hydrocyanic acid is released - a breakdown product of amygdalin that can cause poisoning. Amygdalin glycoside plums contain 0.96%, cherries - 0.82%, apple seeds - 0.6%, bitter almonds - 3%.

Composition and useful properties

Bitter almond kernels include:

  • monosaccharides;
  • fatty acid;
  • enzymes;
  • ash;
  • vitamins C, B, E, A, PP;
  • trace elements: iron, calcium, fluorine, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, zinc, sodium;
  • cellulose;
  • amygdalin. It is he who is dangerous to health. Its content, as well as the fat content of the fruit, depends on the variety and place of cultivation of the plant.

Monounsaturated fats remove harmful cholesterol, vitamin B promotes cell regeneration, structure and formation, vitamin E promotes rejuvenation. Trace elements are involved in many processes, have a positive effect on the heart, bone, nervous, endocrine systems. According to the content of bioactive substances, bitter almond kernels are ahead of other types of nuts.

Application

Almond oil

Popular in the food, perfume, cosmetic, pharmaceutical industries. It normalizes the water and fat balance of the skin, helps cells recover. Use bitter oil as a cream and ointments with a healing effect. It softens the skin, relieves inflammation, has healing properties.

Essential oil

It is obtained exclusively from bitter varieties. It is a colorless liquid with a sharp almond-specific aroma. It is effectively used as a pain reliever, antispasmodic, antimicrobial agent. At home, they often can not be used. A large percentage of amygdalin remains in the oil. In case of overdose, serious poisoning is possible.

Medicine and pharmacology

In this area, bitter almonds are far superior to sweet ones. Shells, kernels, leaves, root bark have healing properties. In addition to decorative qualities, the beneficial properties of plants have been known for a long time. The leaves are harvested at the end of flowering, the fruits - in autumn when ripe, when the pericarp cracks. The kernels are dried after peeling. From them, a fatty aromatic oil is obtained. It is added to injection solutions, ointments and emulsions. Physicians distinguish such beneficial features:

  • painkillers;
  • narcotic;
  • laxatives;
  • sleeping pills;
  • antispasmodic;
  • vasodilators;
  • anti-cold;
  • antihistamines.

The fruit of the almond is a prophylactic anti-cancer agent, in some cases helping in the fight against tumors. Thanks to vitamin B17, which decomposes into sugar, cyanide and benzaldehyde, attaches to cancer cells and destroys them. It also acts as a remedy to relieve severe pain and improve metabolism. But the healing power of the fruit depends on the dosage. For the prevention of tumors, take 1-2 tonsils per day. Even a small overdose can cause irreparable harm.

Bitter almonds are used in homeopathy for the treatment of respiratory organs in asthma, bronchitis, pneumonia, diphtheria. With long-term treatment, they have a tonic, bile and diuretic effect. Preparations based on bitter almonds help with anemia, neurosis, hypertension, skin diseases, tachycardia. It is taken for exhaustion, irritability, insomnia. It is useful for people after a protracted illness due to the powerful content of vitamins and trace elements that can quickly restore lost strength. In complex treatment, it is used for psychosomatic disorders.

During menopause, it is prescribed to men and women. Almond kernels inhibit the production of gastric juice, which contributes to the effective treatment of stomach ulcers. A few drops of oil relieve bloating, reduce gas formation, normalize bowel function, and improve appetite. It removes radionuclides, helps to endure the consequences of radiation sickness. Adsorbent charcoal is made from the peel of the walnut.

ethnoscience

  • Bitter almonds mixed with corn starch are used to treat persistent cough, pleurisy, and asthma.
  • Mixed with honey, it is used as a wound healing antiseptic in the treatment of trophic ulcers, herpes, and wounds.
  • Ground nuts relieve leg cramps, headache relieve anemia.
  • By eating unpeeled almonds, you can improve bowel function, relieve constipation, pain when urinating.
  • Almond oil with violet root cleanses the kidneys and bladder from stones.
  • With sprains, the formation of bedsores, diaper rash, it is rubbed into the skin with light massage movements. The skin softens, blood circulation improves and metabolic processes. Reduces pain, swelling and hardening.
  • Good hair wash almond oil with wine. It helps to get rid of dandruff, improve hair structure.
  • 5 pieces. nuts eaten before the feast will not allow alcohol intoxication.
  • A healing tincture is prepared from the almond shell. With its help, they strengthen vision, improve the condition of the liver and maintain the elasticity of blood vessels. From 100 g of nuts, the shell is removed, poured into 0.5 liters. alcohol. Withstand two weeks in a dark place. Occasionally they shake. When the infusion is ready, it is drunk before meals, 15 drops each.
  • In the treatment of baldness, gruel from ground nuts is rubbed into the head. It is also used to get rid of furunculosis, applying in the form of a compress to a diseased area of ​​​​the body until recovery.

cooking

You can use bitter almonds in cooking in small quantities. After heat treatment:

  • steaming;
  • roasting;
  • baking;
  • cooking;
  • calcination

amygdalin glycoside is neutralized, loses toxicity, and nuts become harmless to humans.

Bitter almonds are included in the recipe for gourmet oriental dishes as an aromatic component, as they are very bitter and can spoil the taste. Roasted almonds have the same health benefits as raw almonds. But when roasted, the vitamins are destroyed. The advantage of roasted nuts is that they are digested in the stomach easier and faster.

Cosmetology

Valued all over the world useful qualities bitter almond. It is able to preserve youth, skin elasticity, hair strength and shine, prolonging the beauty and healthy appearance of any woman for a long time. It is used both in the production of professional cosmetics and in home recipes. Almond oil works great as an independent tool, and in combination with other components, creams, lotions, substances, oils.

In cosmetology, it is used for:

  • slowing down the natural aging of epidermal cells;
  • UV protection;
  • pore reduction;
  • hair strengthening;
  • relieve irritation and inflammation on the skin;
  • moisturizing;
  • recovery;
  • healing of small cracks and wounds.

For hair

With the help of almond oil, you can get strong thick curls in a short time. It not only stimulates hair growth, but also heals them. The functions of the sebaceous glands are normalized, the hair follicles are nourished with useful substances, the structure of the entire hair is strengthened, from root to tip. Aroma combing is often used to restore damaged, lost curls. A few drops are applied to a special comb. They comb their hair from top to bottom. To enhance the effect, essential oils are added to the base.

  • Sandalwood, tangerine, orange, ylang-ylang are suitable for dry curls. Aroma combing is carried out after shampooing.
  • For fatty add lemon, cedar, bergamot, cypress. The procedure is carried out before washing the hair.

The same mixture works great when wrapping and using masks. In the fight against dandruff, you can use a natural almond scrub:

  • almond oil - 1 tbsp;
  • ground almond seeds 50 g;
  • egg yolk.

Everything is mixed, and rubbed into the head with massage movements for several minutes. Leave for 15 min. and rinse with warm running water.

For face

Oil made from bitter almonds whitens freckles, age spots, heals acne and pimples. Well tolerated by irritated, inflamed, sensitive skin. It copes with peeling, cracks, softens coarsened areas, restores elasticity, and gives the skin a velvety healthy color.

  • Acne is treated by rubbing a mixture of almond oil daily. Stir 5 drops with 100 ml. distilled water.
  • Improve the cream by adding natural useful material, you can by mixing the base with a few drops of oil. This cream will whiten the face, get rid of freckles and age spots.
  • Dry skin is lubricated with oil after taking a bath. It reveals beneficial properties when rubbed, but not heated.
  • On its basis, they prepare high-quality, no different from store-bought, makeup removers, waterproof mascara and lipstick.

From sweat

Many people do not like to use antiperspirants because they contain harmful aluminum salts. Essential oil from bitter almonds can be used for a homemade sweat remedy. A few drops added to baking soda and starch powder will protect against germs and underarm irritation. A little powder is applied to clean, dry skin and left to dry. One or two procedures a day will make the armpits dry and pleasantly smelling.

intimate hygiene

One of the popular folk recipes cleanliness - washing with a mixture of lavender and almond oil. This will permanently save a woman from an unpleasant odor in a delicate area. You can douche or use tampons. With menstrual pain, the oil will serve as a pain reliever.

Harm and contraindications

Without pre-treatment bitter almonds should not be consumed. The lethal dose for a child's body is 10 tonsils, for an adult - 50. But you won't be able to eat a lot of such nuts - they are too tasteless. The more poisonous the core, the richer the bitterness.

Cold-pressed oil is also poisonous. Amygdalin is in it in the same amount as before pressing. The high medical value of the almond plant allows you to get rid of many diseases. But therapy must be carried out under the strict supervision of a knowledgeable physician. Self-medication in this case can be fatal. For children, bitter almonds and its oil are categorically contraindicated.

Almond nuts in sensitive people cause an allergic reaction. It can manifest itself with such symptoms:

  • skin redness;
  • irritation;
  • swelling of the larynx;
  • suffocation.

Almonds are not used for heart disease and serious damage to the nervous system. It is forbidden to use an unripe product. It contains even more toxic substances.

How to store

Almonds are loaded with fats that quickly go rancid if stored improperly. As a result, the kernels become unusable. Store nuts in a closed container in a dry place, protected from sunlight. The fridge is the perfect storage place. The product is hidden from fresh herbs, raw meat, ready-made food, fish, as nuts absorb odors. With proper storage, almonds may not lose their qualities for up to 2 years.